Abstract art Art that isolates essential features of something to an acute degree, e.g. the oval shape of the human head re-created without details of facial features. There can be degrees of abstraction in an artwork depending on the degree of emphasis, selection or omission of features. Abstraction in art is the process of isolating essential visual features of a subject.
Adorer Author’s informal name for ancient statues that represent a devotee. Adorer figures were often depicted with a gesture of praying. Mesopotamian adorers were depicted with garments that resemble skirts, hence the author’s informal name of “skirted adorer.”
Aesthetic / esthetic That which pertains to art as an object of contemplation. Aesthetic elements serve to dramatize some wider meaning about life and existence. E.g. aesthetic elements of Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa include her facial expression, the softness of the light and muted colors of the landscape. Those features convey the sense of a calm world that is favorable to human life. A non-aesthetic element like the rectangular shape of the canvas does not convey aesthetic meaning.
Acroterion Plural: acroteria. In ancient architecture, a sculpture or vertical ornament set on the roof, usually at the apex or corners of a pitched roof.
Allegory In visual art, the use of a subject — a thing or scene — to dramatize a theme, often a moral theme. E.g., a painting of a person striking a sinister-looking person could be an allegory of justice punishing wrongdoing. Allegory is distinguished from Symbolism. Allegorical art can dramatize a theme, while symbolic art merely signifies a particular thing or idea. The painting of someone striking down a criminal dramatizes justice in action, or an instance of justice, while an image of a scale is a symbol of justice. Allegorical art often uses personification to stand for an idea.
Amphora In ancient ceramics, a large, two-handled storage jar.
Antefix Latin meaning “fastened in front.” A decorative tile or block used to cover the exposed end of a roof tile at the edge of the roof. Ancient Roman terra-cotta antefixes, now called “Campana,” were decorated with figurative relief.
Apse In architecture, a recess located at the end of the main hall or nave of an ancient basilica or Christian church. In antiquity, the apse was where court officials sat to hear cases. When Roman basilicas were converted to Christian churches, the apse became the location of the altar.
Art form A basic mode of artistic creation: e.g. drawing, painting, sculpture.
Art / visual fine art An artist's selective, stylized re-creation of something based on what the artist thinks is important about life and existence -- in other words, stylized according to the artist's metaphysical value-judgments. Visual art created for the purpose of contemplation alone.
Artifact A man-made object that is typically of cultural or historic significance.
Artisan A skilled craftsman who executes a design created by an artist or chief designer.
Artist Someone who originates the design of a work of art based on their own outlook and values. The artist usually also makes the work of art. The term can be loosely applied to artisans and craftsmen who worked prior to the emergence of individual artists in ancient Greece.
Axis An imaginary straight line that passes through the center of an object, following the object’s length and often dividing symmetrical halves of the object. E.g., the axis of a standing human figure can be drawn from the top of the head down the length of the body to a point between the feet.
Basilica In ancient Roman architecture, a large, public building used for legal transactions and hearings. Christians converted Roman basilicas to churches. Christian basilicas reflect the original basilica design of an oblong building with a central hall, or nave, and apse.
Black-figure painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method that produced figures in black silhouette against a light, clay background. Outlines were incised into the clay with a fine tool.
Canon A rule. In art, a canon can refer to a standard or set of principles. E.g. an ancient Greek canon for the figure was that it be seven heads tall.
Cast shadow In two-dimensional art, the shadow that an object casts upon a surface. A shadow can be cast on the ground or on another object.
Cella In ancient architecture, the inner chamber or central room in a temple or treasury. The cella is walled, without windows, and has a front entrance. The temple cella often contained a platform or table for offerings.
Centaur In ancient Greek art, a mythical creature that is half man, half horse. Centaurs likely represented barbarism.
Chryselephantine Descriptive of ancient sculpture made of gold and ivory. In the modern age, the term more loosely refers to sculpture made of ivory with other materials.
Cityscape In two-dimensional art, a depiction of an urban “landscape” or city. Likewise, a depiction of a town is called a “townscape,” and a depiction of the sea is called a “seascape.”
Clay slip A creamy mix of clay and water, often used in decorating ceramics.
Colossal In sculpture, a figure that is over twice life-size.
Composition / design The arrangement of the parts of a work of art such that the parts are visibly in a relationship. The product of creative composition. Picture composition is the arrangement of elements within a picture. E.g. a landscape painting might show a horizontal horizon line in the lower half of the picture, and a cluster of trees positioned on the horizon in the right half of the picture. The location of the trees in relation to the horizon is part of the picture’s composition.
Concretize In art, making a particular, physical object stand for an idea. E.g. the figure of a running athlete can concretize ideas of freedom and efficacy.
Contour line A drawn, painted or incised line that follows the shape of the object depicted or that outlines a form — e.g., the line in a drawing that follows the folds of drapery from a figure’s shoulder to its waist. Cross-contour lines cross each other in different directions and can depict the shape of surfaces within a figure’s outline. For example, vertical and horizontal contour lines within the outline of an apple can show the round shape of the apple.
Contrapposto Italian for “counter position.” A figure’s stance when weight is shifted to one foot. This pose produces an “S” curve in the figure primarily because of the tilt of the hips. Polykleitos’s famous statue of the Spear-bearer (Doryphoros) uses contrapposto. (Fig. 6-20)
Cubic Descriptive of a design that resembles the form of a cube.
Cylinder seal A seal used in antiquity made of a small cylinder of a hard material (stone, glass) carved with an intaglio design. The seal was rolled over a soft material (usually clay) to make a positive relief. Seals were used to mark property. People wore cylinder seals tied around their necks, wrists or clothing.
Didactic art Art intended to teach something, usually a moral lesson.
Diptych In ancient decorative art, a small notebook made of a hinged pair of plates with wax-coated surfaces inside for writing. The outside of the plates were at times decorated with carved relief in wood or ivory. Diptychs were given as gifts on formal occasions. (A three-panel version of the diptych is called a “triptych;” If more than three panels, a “polyptych.”) Christians repurposed Roman diptychs to illustrate biblical subjects. In the Middle Ages, the design of the triptych was the basis for large, painted altarpieces set behind church altars.
Death mask A positive form cast / shaped from a mold that was made directly from a deceased person’s face.
Dramatize, dramatization In visual art, to display or describe a subject by aesthetic means. Art can dramatize a subject or an idea. Emphasis of a subject by portraying it in contrast to something else, e.g. dramatizing the nude by depicting it in contrast to drapery; emphasizing subjects' similarities, e.g. dramatizing the heroic by depicting similar heroes doing battle (the metopes of the Parthenon); depicting a visual metaphor, e.g. dramatizing man’s openness to existence by depicting a nude figure with open arms. Dramatization in visual art often shows something that implies action — e.g., a painting can dramatize the idea of justice by depicting a figure in an act of justice (punishing a villain or embracing a hero).
Drawing The art form that creates a subject by means of marking lines on a surface, such as graphite pencil on paper. Drawing is the basis for painting.
Écorché A depiction of the human figure without its skin. The écorché is often used in art instruction to teach human anatomy.
Effigy A sculpture or model used for some purpose other than aesthetic contemplation. In the ancient world, effigies were believed to provide a place for the dead to inhabit and were installed in tombs. In modern culture, effigies of “a Man” are burned during “Burning Man” events in the Nevada desert.
Embody To represent or imply an abstract idea using a concrete object or feature. E.g. Myron’s Discus Thrower (Discobolus) embodies an ideal of human excellence.
Encaustic Descriptive of paint that has wax as its binder for the pigments. Encaustic painting typically uses pigmented wax that is heated before it is applied to a surface.
Entablature In ancient architecture, the layered, elevated frame that conjoins the vertical columns with the roof. The entablature in (Doric) temples was usually decorated with a series of alternating metopes and triglyphs.
Essentialize To stress what is essential about something — to isolate or emphasize a feature of something upon which other features depend or with which other features are related. E.g., in a portrait, emphasizing an intelligent facial expression and omitting non-essential details such as pores of the skin.
Field of vision / visual field All that an individual perceives from a fixed viewpoint. The term characterizes what is perceived from a given viewpoint as being like an area or realm.
Firsthand Pertains to direct observation of something. E.g., study is firsthand when it is from direct cognition of the subject rather than derived from someone else’s rendering of or report about the subject. Distinguished from secondhanded — e.g., borrowed from convention or following authority.
Foreshortening, foreshortened In art, the visual effect that results when an object is viewed at an angle and appears as though it is shorter, or compressed, than when it is viewed in profile. E.g., a person’s arm pointed toward a viewer appears as though it is compressed, since the length of the arm (relative to the height of the figure) is not visible from that viewpoint.
Formulaic Following a formula or convention. Formulaic art follows an established pattern or set of guidelines over the evidence of observation. E.g., in ancient Egyptian art, the formula for the figure included legs viewed in profile and the chest viewed from the front.
Freestanding In sculpture, standing independent of, or unattached to, a supporting structure. Michelangelo’s David is a freestanding sculpture, while the portraits of Mount Rushmore are not freestanding.
Fresco Plural: frescoes. Italian word meaning “fresh.” The method of painting by applying water-based paint to a moist, plaster surface. Also, a painting made by this method. Michelangelo’s paintings on the Sistine Ceiling are frescoes.
Frieze A long, continuous band or series of panels of painted or relief images. E.g., The West Frieze of the Parthenon includes the depiction of a procession of cavalrymen with their horses. (Fig. 6-85)
Gargoyle In architecture, a drainage spout shaped to resemble a creature. Usually a grotesque that serves as a drainage spout.
Grid system As it was used in ancient Egyptian art, a method for replicating an image whereby a prototype is marked with a grid of lines, then the parts of the image are redrawn on another grid. By this method, an image can be copied, enlarged or reduced in size.
Grotesque In sculpture, a figure of a misshapen person, creature or monster. Grotesques in antiquity were usually small sculptures intended to ward off misfortune. Large grotesques set on buildings are often mistakenly called “gargoyles.” A grotesque can be a gargoyle if it also serves as a drainage spout.
Ground plane In two-dimensional art, the implied three-dimensional surface of the ground on which figures stand. The depiction of a receding plane on which figures are positioned. The implied horizontal surface that is perpendicular to the picture plane. (The picture plane is the plane that is vertical relative to the viewer.) The depiction of a ground plane is often achieved by depicting distant figures above foreground figures. The ground plane can be more overtly described with contour lines that follow the surface of the ground. E.g. the cross-contour lines of a checkered tile floor can show the plane of the floor more vividly than can the mere outline of the floor that follows where the floor meets the walls.
Groundline A line that represents the ground on which figures stand. A single groundline was common in ancient painting and often appeared at the bottom of registers in which figures were set in rows.
Herm Plural: hermae. A vertical slab or pillar with a sculpted head at its top. In antiquity, hermae were used to mark roads, boundaries and buildings to ward off misfortune. Ancient hermae often included a phallus on the front of the slab to denote the influence of the god Hermes, a phallic god of good fortune.
Hero Someone who has extraordinary ability to overcome obstacles to achieve a high goal. The heroic in art emphasizes man’s potential for greatness. In ancient myth, heroes often were offspring of the gods, or aided by the gods.
Heroic scale In sculpture, larger than life-size but smaller than colossal scale.
Hierarchical proportion A primitive system of proportion in which the most important figures are largest; the least important, smallest.
Hieratic Pertaining to priests or a priesthood. Hieratic art is art made for a priesthood or under the authority of a priesthood. In Egyptology, “hieratic” refers to a type of Egyptian writing that is simpler than hieroglyphics.
Hippodrome In ancient Greek architecture, a racetrack for chariot racing. The track was oblong with one end curved and the other end rectangular.
Iconoclasm The destruction of images or artwork.
Idol An image, often a figure, that stands for a god or spirit. Idolatry is the worship of idols.
Illusionistic painting Painting that aims to create the illusion that a physical object is on the painted surface. In antiquity, illusionistic painting was primarily used to depict an architectural element on a wall in order to give the impression that the actual element — be it a window, column, or molding — was present on the wall. Illusionistic painting of architectural elements is also called “skenographia.” From the Renaissance on, trompe-l’oeil paintings of still life objects were created for the same purpose — to give the impression that an actual object is resting on, or is attached to the canvas.
Incise To cut a line or series of lines into a surface with a sharp tool.
Intaglio From the Italian word meaning “to cut.” A kind of relief in which the image is carved into a surface — e.g., ancient cylinder seals are decorated with intaglio images.
Kore Plural: korai. Greek for “maiden.” Conventional name for an Archaic Greek statue of a draped female youth.
Kouros Plural: kouroi. Greek for “male youth.” Conventional name for an Archaic Greek statue of a nude male youth.
Lamassu Plural: lamassu. A guardian spirit revered in ancient Mesopotamian cultures. Lamassu were depicted in Assyrian art with human and animal features that reflected earlier depictions of mythical creatures.
Landscape In two-dimensional art, a depiction of the features of an area of land and sky. Although landscape is usually of a natural setting, it can include man-made features, e.g. Rembrandt’s landscape etchings often include houses and windmills.
Lekythos In ancient ceramics, a tall, narrow oil flask with one handle attached at the neck, often used for funerary rites.
Lifecast / life mask A positive form cast / shaped from a mold that was made directly from a living person’s face.
Line work A line or series of lines drawn on a surface. The term focuses on the quality or character of the line(s) apart from subject or theme — e.g., “The line work in the etching is bold and confident.”
Local color The color of an object as it appears in natural, ambient light without the effects of shadow or nearby colors. An example of local color is the red of a Cardinal’s feathers. If a blue light is shone onto the bird, its red feathers would appear to be black. Its local color is red, not black.
Lyrical Descriptive of a work of visual art that has an even repetition of elements with variation, similar to the beats of poetry. E.g. the curved lines in a painting might be repeated yet show variations of size and direction, such as the women' locks of hair in the Minoan fresco Ladies in Blue. (Fig. 5-7) Lyrical features in visual art are often evocative of vitality, joy or gaiety.
Medium The material in which an artwork is made, e.g. graphite on paper, cast bronze, watercolor.
Metaphysical value-judgment A person's assessment of what is possible and most important in life. An assessment that reflects a basic view of human nature and existence. Examples of metaphysical value-judgements are: “It’s natural for humans to thrive," or "Humans are by nature doomed;” “Existence is sensible," or "The world is dangerous.”
Metaphysics The branch of philosophy that studies existence as such. This branch answers questions about man’s essential nature and his relationship to existence: e.g. “Is existence rigged against man?” or “Can man achieve happiness?” The term “metaphysical” pertains to all of existence and is not limited to particular things or events.
Metope In ancient architecture, a tablet or block set between the triglyphs as part of a frieze on a (Doric) entablature. The term “metope” is Greek for “an opening between” and refers to an earlier feature of Greek architecture in which a series of spaces were left between the ends of the roof beams.
Mosaic A two-dimensional art in which a picture or pattern is made with small, colored pieces of a hard material like stone, glass, or shell, arranged together in mortar. In antiquity, mosaics were used to decorate floors, walls, and ceilings. Greco-Roman mosaics often copied paintings.
Motif A recurring image or design that often stands for an idea.
Narrative art Art that is meant to tell a fictional or historical story. Narrative art depicts scenes and events that are themselves elements of a wider account — e.g. Trajan’s Column depicts scenes from the emperor’s campaigns in the Dacian Wars.
Naturalism In visual art, the re-creation of something with little or no stylization or modification — in other words, a re-creation of what is without dramatization of what could be. Naturalistic art indiscriminately records a subject as though the artist does not exercise selection or value judgment. Naturalistic art is distinguished from Romantic art which expresses the artist’s value choices. Naturalism is often confused with the more general category of realism in art. The term “naturalistic” is also often used to describe art that depicts the natural as distinct from the man-made — art that is based on observation of the natural world, or nature.
Oblique view An oblique view is any viewing angle other than one that is either perpendicular or parallel to the object. E.g. a 3/4 view of the head is at an oblique angle, while a perpendicular view would give either the “front” or the “back” view. A “parallel” view that lines up with the axis of the head would give a “bird’s-eye” view from above.
Neoplatonism The philosophy taught by Plotinus (c. 204/5 - 270 A.D.). Ideas that follow the teachings of Plotinus. Neoplatonism holds that existence emanates from a godhead or supreme “One.”
Outline In two-dimensional art, the outermost contour line. The line that bounds or limits an object, distinguishing the object from its background or surroundings.
Painterly Descriptive of a painting or its brushwork in which the brushstrokes are visible and color values reflect brushwork and not drawing. A painterly style of brushwork emphasizes color values over outline and contour line. E.g. the painting of a duck on an Egyptian pavement tile from the 18th Dynasty (Fig. 4-55) has a painterly style of brushwork: Plants are described with quick “painterly” strokes of the brush. By contrast, the plants and birds in the Egyptian Geese of Meidum panel from the 4th Dynasty (Fig. 4-44) are rendered in crisp outline and are not painterly in style.
Painting The art form that re-creates a subject by means of applying color values to a surface, such as oil paint on canvas.
Pantheon A group of gods. A temple that is dedicated to a number of gods.
Pediment In architecture, the triangular area below the gable end of a pitched roof. In ancient architecture, the pediment was located above the entablature and was often decorated with relief.
Personification In visual art, use of the human figure to stand for something else. E.g., Giambologna’s seated female nude personifies the art of architecture; Bartholdi’s colossus personifies liberty. (Fig. 1-1) Personification is often used in allegorical art.
Perspective / visual perspective In two-dimensional art, the method of depicting three-dimensional objects in a spatial field. Perspective is used to re-create the volume of an object, the depth of a space, the distance between objects, and the direction and proximity of a light source relative to the objects that it illuminates. A subject is “in perspective” when it is rendered in accordance with how it would necessarily appear from a given, fixed point of view. Techniques include the use of linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. Linear perspective shows the diminution of elements on the picture plane to a vanishing point at the viewer’s horizon line. Single-point perspective is linear perspective in which there is one vanishing point. Atmospheric perspective shows the gradual desaturation of color values for distant objects. Principles of perspective in art are based on the nature of human vision and the laws of optics.
Pharaonic Pertaining to an Egyptian god-king.
Pictograph (also pictogram) A picture, or pictorial symbol, that stands for an idea. E.g., before the invention of cuneiform, a drawing of a bird stood for the concept “bird” in Mesopotamian pictographs. Over time, the drawing of the bird was modified until it became a set of wedge-shaped lines that meant “bird” in cuneiform writing.
Pigment That which gives something its local color, e.g. a powdered mineral in paint. The term “pigment” can be used as a synonym for “color.”
Plane A flat surface. In art, the surfaces of objects are understood as being comprised of a series of planes. This understanding helps the artist re-create the structure of three-dimensional objects, and helps the viewer to see that structure.
Pointing In sculpture, a method of duplicating an object by mechanically transferring measurements from fixed points on the original object to a material, like a block of stone. By this method, an artist can replicate an original sculpture, or make a copy that is larger or smaller than the original sculpture.
Pose The positions of the parts of the figure considered as a whole. The entire configuration of the figure. It is the figure’s overall posture of standing, sitting, reclining, or moving.
Presocratic Descriptive of a philosophy or philosopher who predates the time of Socrates, who lived c. 469-399 B.C. The Presocratics were the first philosophers, beginning with Thales of Miletus (c. 625 - 546 B.C.). These thinkers were primarily concerned with questions of metaphysics and they tried to understand existence by using rational inquiry, not by invoking gods — e.g. Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 580-500 B.C.) held that natural forces, not gods, produced the basic elements of the universe.
Profile In art, profile refers to what is visible when a figure is viewed from the side. E.g., the profile of the head shows the outline of the forehead, nose, mouth and chin viewed from the side. The profile is distinguished from other views such as the front, back, and the foreshortened or oblique view.
Propaganda art Art intended to promote a political idea and impact the viewer’s political views. Propaganda art is often didactic — meant to instruct the viewer about the politics that the artist is promoting. Examples of modern age propaganda art are the official arts of Soviet Russia, Communist China, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy.
Proportion The relationship in size of a part to a whole. Proportion in art is usually understood as a ratio that compares a length or volume of a part to a whole, or of a part to other parts. E.g., the adult human figure is about 7.5 heads high. The length of the hand is about 0.75 that of the head.
Rational Pertaining to the exercise of reason as the only method for gaining knowledge. Descriptive of a method of acquiring knowledge that is based on perceptual observation and logical consistency, as distinct from faith or feeling. E.g., astronomy is a rational science, while astrology is not.
Realism / realistic Generally descriptive of art that accurately depicts a subject according to the evidence of perceptual observation. Realistic art can be stylized to any degree within the limits of intelligibility and natural appearance. Realistic art is distinguished from Abstract art. Both Naturalist and Romanticist art can be realistic. E.g., Gustave Courbet’s Naturalist painting The Stone Breakers and John William Waterhouse’s Romanticist painting Hylas and the Nymphs are both realistic in approach, while Edvard Munch's abstract work The Scream is not realistic. The term “realism” in art is conventionally treated as a synonym for the term “representational.” In art history, the name “Realist” is misapplied to the trend of Naturalism in 19th century European art. Realism is also sometimes mistakenly termed “Illusionism.”
Rectilinear Characterized by or following a straight line or series of straight, perpendicular lines.
Red-figure painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method of painting that produced light-colored figures surrounded by a black background. The figures were rendered using painted contour lines. This technique allowed freer rendering and greater sensitivity of line work compared to the method of black-figure painting.
Register In ancient art, a horizontal band, or tier, often framed above and below by straight lines or bars. Ancient registers usually contain figures set in a row, with the bottom line serving as a groundline — e.g., the procession of figures on the Warka Vase. (Fig. 3-34)
Relief Sculptural form that is part of a flat surface. High-relief (alto-relief) projects out from the surface more than low-relief (bas-relief). Sunken relief is hollowed into the surface (also called intaglio).
Representational Conventional term that refers to realistic art. E.g., a painting of a bowl of apples is said to be representational when it is based on the artist’s direct observation of a bowl of apples. But art uses subjects based on observation to embody abstract ideas — art “represents” an abstraction, not the particular that it depicts. E.g., while a painting of a bowl of apples re-creates a bowl of apples, it does not represent a bowl of apples, rather it represents (for instance) an idea of prosperity. The term as it is often used is synonymous with the term “realistic.”
Sarcophagus Plural: sarcophagi. An ancient coffin, usually carved in stone and decorated in relief.
Sculpture The art form that re-creates a subject by means of three-dimensional form shaped in a solid material, such as stone carved in the shape of a human figure.
Sculpture in the round Freestanding sculpture in which all surfaces are viewable — it can be viewed from all around it. E.g. Myron’s Discus Thrower is sculpture in the round
Sense of life The emotional sum that an artwork evokes or dramatizes about life and existence, e.g. "Life is a joy" or “Life is a burden;” “The world is inviting” or “The world is frightening.” A person’s sense of life is his or her implicit metaphysical outlook experienced in the form of an emotion. Sense of life is usually held subconsciously and is implied in a work of art. For example, the sense of life conveyed in Luca Della Robbias’ relief panels of children playing music, expresses the view that joy is natural in life. (Fig. 9-10)
Skenographia Greek meaning “scene painting.” In Roman art, painting that depicts architectural features for the purpose of perspective illusion — to suggest that three-dimensional objects exist on the surface that is painted. Often a mural that aims to give a wall the appearance of having an physical door, window, or molding, when none is there. Similar to Renaissance trompe-l’oeil paintings that were meant to trick the viewer into thinking that an actual physical object is on the canvas.
Skepticism The view that knowledge is not possible. Skepticism grew out of the Platonist method of questioning common knowledge or received opinion. The philosophy of skepticism was developed by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 320 - 230 B.C.) and taught by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160 - 210 A.D.)
Static figure A depiction of the figure that implies that the figure is not capable of action or movement. A figure that does not show man’s potential for action.
Stele (Plural: stelae. (Also stela) An upright commemorative or funerary slab, often inscribed or decorated with carved relief.
Still life In two-dimensional art, the depiction of inanimate objects, usually objects that are in an arrangement. Still life can include plants and animals. By the kinds of items that the artist selects, still life can suggest a certain kind of life, e.g. a life of intellectual pursuits can be suggested by a book, a magnifying glass, and notepad; a life of affluence can be suggested by an arrangement of food or jewelry.
Stoicism A Hellenistic philosophy that claimed that existence is determined therefore man has no free will. The Stoics taught that man should accept his circumstances, give up pursuing high values, withdraw from the world and find an inner state of virtue. Stoicism originated with the teachings of the Greek Zeno of Citium (c. 344 - 262 B.C.) and was developed in the Roman Empire period in the 1st - 2nd centuries A.D.
Stucco In sculpture, a water-based medium similar to plaster. Stucco is applied wet and hardens when it dries. Stucco is used primarily for decorative reliefs and moldings. In painting, stucco is used as a ground for paint.
Subject The particular thing that an artwork depicts, such as a person, plant, animal, or place. Subject is distinguished from theme (a particular idea) and metaphysics (a wider outlook on life and existence).
Subjective art (Also non-objective art) Art with meaning that is not objective, or cannot be known by reason. Subjective art can have features that are based on observation of reality, but taken as a whole, the artwork does not clearly stand for something understood by reason. The meaning of subjective art cannot be verified by means of observation and logic. Typically, the meaning of subjective art is believed to reflect the artist or viewer’s feelings or experience. An example of subjective art is early 20th century Dada art.
Style / stylization The way that an artist re-creates a subject. How the artist emphasizes or de-emphasizes something in their artwork. E.g., an artist might render a figure in bold streaks of dark paint to emphasize the figure’s strength and action, while another artist might use fine, even contour lines to emphasize the figure’s gentleness. The features of an artwork produced by a process of stylization.
Symbolism / symbolic art Art that uses an object or motif to directly stand for an idea. Symbolism in art usually depends upon the viewer knowing in advance what idea a symbol stands for, like an image of a falcon standing for the god Horus according to ancient Egyptian religion. Although a symbol can stand for an idea it does not dramatize an idea. A symbol is distinguished from allegory. In art history, the Symbolist movement refers to 19th century artists who used symbols in their artwork — e.g. Paul Gauguin’s Where Do we Come From? Where Are We? Where Are We Going? features religious symbols.
Tempera (Also egg tempera) A paint medium that is water-soluble and made with a binder, usually egg yoke.
Theme A particular idea that a work of art expresses, such as "The king is powerful," "The tall ship is a beacon of hope," or "Justice is possible.” The theme is usually not as abstract as the metaphysics that the artwork embodies.
Tone In two-dimensional art, some degree of color value, brightness or darkness of an object.
Tonal gradation (Also value gradation) A variation in the brightness or hue of a subject. Tonal gradation can re-create variations in local color, imply surface shape, and indicate the direction and proximity of a light source. Tonal gradation is created in two-dimensional art by means of shading, e.g., a gradual change from dark to light across the surface of an egg can suggest the shape of the egg.
Torso A depiction of the trunk of the body without the head and limbs. Many sculptural torsos from the past were once full-figure statues that lost their extremities — e.g., the Belvedere Torso. (Fig. 7-22) The torso is a type of sculpture that emulates torso fragments from the past. The torso can dramatize vitality.
Triglyph In ancient architecture, a tablet or block set between metopes as part of a frieze on a (Doric) entablature. The term “triglyph” means “three carved channels,” referring to the triglyph’s characteristic trio of vertical bars or channels. Historians think that the triglyphs are a decorative imitation of the ends of the wooden beams that used to support temple roofs.
Undercut In sculpture, a cavity created by a prominence, usually the underside of a prominence. E.g. the underside of a person’s chin, or the underside of a fold of drapery.
Underdrawing A preliminary drawing over which a drawing or painting is made.
Universal Pertaining or applicable to all members of a kind. E.g., a rational faculty is universal to man (to all men, women and children), while blonde hair is not.
Visual art Art in which the primary mode of expression is visual. E.g., painting is a visual art; music is not.
Votive An object that is or that stands for a gift to a god or spirit. In antiquity (and likely in prehistory), votives were believed to entreat gods to favor the giver.
Western civilization Pertaining to societies that developed from the intellectual achievements of the ancient Greeks, such as those that ignited the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution.
White-ground painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method in which figures are drawn on a white background using painted-on black outline and couture line and then filled in with color. The white background surrounding the figure often suggested an open, lit space
Adorer Author’s informal name for ancient statues that represent a devotee. Adorer figures were often depicted with a gesture of praying. Mesopotamian adorers were depicted with garments that resemble skirts, hence the author’s informal name of “skirted adorer.”
Aesthetic / esthetic That which pertains to art as an object of contemplation. Aesthetic elements serve to dramatize some wider meaning about life and existence. E.g. aesthetic elements of Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa include her facial expression, the softness of the light and muted colors of the landscape. Those features convey the sense of a calm world that is favorable to human life. A non-aesthetic element like the rectangular shape of the canvas does not convey aesthetic meaning.
Acroterion Plural: acroteria. In ancient architecture, a sculpture or vertical ornament set on the roof, usually at the apex or corners of a pitched roof.
Allegory In visual art, the use of a subject — a thing or scene — to dramatize a theme, often a moral theme. E.g., a painting of a person striking a sinister-looking person could be an allegory of justice punishing wrongdoing. Allegory is distinguished from Symbolism. Allegorical art can dramatize a theme, while symbolic art merely signifies a particular thing or idea. The painting of someone striking down a criminal dramatizes justice in action, or an instance of justice, while an image of a scale is a symbol of justice. Allegorical art often uses personification to stand for an idea.
Amphora In ancient ceramics, a large, two-handled storage jar.
Antefix Latin meaning “fastened in front.” A decorative tile or block used to cover the exposed end of a roof tile at the edge of the roof. Ancient Roman terra-cotta antefixes, now called “Campana,” were decorated with figurative relief.
Apse In architecture, a recess located at the end of the main hall or nave of an ancient basilica or Christian church. In antiquity, the apse was where court officials sat to hear cases. When Roman basilicas were converted to Christian churches, the apse became the location of the altar.
Art form A basic mode of artistic creation: e.g. drawing, painting, sculpture.
Art / visual fine art An artist's selective, stylized re-creation of something based on what the artist thinks is important about life and existence -- in other words, stylized according to the artist's metaphysical value-judgments. Visual art created for the purpose of contemplation alone.
Artifact A man-made object that is typically of cultural or historic significance.
Artisan A skilled craftsman who executes a design created by an artist or chief designer.
Artist Someone who originates the design of a work of art based on their own outlook and values. The artist usually also makes the work of art. The term can be loosely applied to artisans and craftsmen who worked prior to the emergence of individual artists in ancient Greece.
Axis An imaginary straight line that passes through the center of an object, following the object’s length and often dividing symmetrical halves of the object. E.g., the axis of a standing human figure can be drawn from the top of the head down the length of the body to a point between the feet.
Basilica In ancient Roman architecture, a large, public building used for legal transactions and hearings. Christians converted Roman basilicas to churches. Christian basilicas reflect the original basilica design of an oblong building with a central hall, or nave, and apse.
Black-figure painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method that produced figures in black silhouette against a light, clay background. Outlines were incised into the clay with a fine tool.
Canon A rule. In art, a canon can refer to a standard or set of principles. E.g. an ancient Greek canon for the figure was that it be seven heads tall.
Cast shadow In two-dimensional art, the shadow that an object casts upon a surface. A shadow can be cast on the ground or on another object.
Cella In ancient architecture, the inner chamber or central room in a temple or treasury. The cella is walled, without windows, and has a front entrance. The temple cella often contained a platform or table for offerings.
Centaur In ancient Greek art, a mythical creature that is half man, half horse. Centaurs likely represented barbarism.
Chryselephantine Descriptive of ancient sculpture made of gold and ivory. In the modern age, the term more loosely refers to sculpture made of ivory with other materials.
Cityscape In two-dimensional art, a depiction of an urban “landscape” or city. Likewise, a depiction of a town is called a “townscape,” and a depiction of the sea is called a “seascape.”
Clay slip A creamy mix of clay and water, often used in decorating ceramics.
Colossal In sculpture, a figure that is over twice life-size.
Composition / design The arrangement of the parts of a work of art such that the parts are visibly in a relationship. The product of creative composition. Picture composition is the arrangement of elements within a picture. E.g. a landscape painting might show a horizontal horizon line in the lower half of the picture, and a cluster of trees positioned on the horizon in the right half of the picture. The location of the trees in relation to the horizon is part of the picture’s composition.
Concretize In art, making a particular, physical object stand for an idea. E.g. the figure of a running athlete can concretize ideas of freedom and efficacy.
Contour line A drawn, painted or incised line that follows the shape of the object depicted or that outlines a form — e.g., the line in a drawing that follows the folds of drapery from a figure’s shoulder to its waist. Cross-contour lines cross each other in different directions and can depict the shape of surfaces within a figure’s outline. For example, vertical and horizontal contour lines within the outline of an apple can show the round shape of the apple.
Contrapposto Italian for “counter position.” A figure’s stance when weight is shifted to one foot. This pose produces an “S” curve in the figure primarily because of the tilt of the hips. Polykleitos’s famous statue of the Spear-bearer (Doryphoros) uses contrapposto. (Fig. 6-20)
Cubic Descriptive of a design that resembles the form of a cube.
Cylinder seal A seal used in antiquity made of a small cylinder of a hard material (stone, glass) carved with an intaglio design. The seal was rolled over a soft material (usually clay) to make a positive relief. Seals were used to mark property. People wore cylinder seals tied around their necks, wrists or clothing.
Didactic art Art intended to teach something, usually a moral lesson.
Diptych In ancient decorative art, a small notebook made of a hinged pair of plates with wax-coated surfaces inside for writing. The outside of the plates were at times decorated with carved relief in wood or ivory. Diptychs were given as gifts on formal occasions. (A three-panel version of the diptych is called a “triptych;” If more than three panels, a “polyptych.”) Christians repurposed Roman diptychs to illustrate biblical subjects. In the Middle Ages, the design of the triptych was the basis for large, painted altarpieces set behind church altars.
Death mask A positive form cast / shaped from a mold that was made directly from a deceased person’s face.
Dramatize, dramatization In visual art, to display or describe a subject by aesthetic means. Art can dramatize a subject or an idea. Emphasis of a subject by portraying it in contrast to something else, e.g. dramatizing the nude by depicting it in contrast to drapery; emphasizing subjects' similarities, e.g. dramatizing the heroic by depicting similar heroes doing battle (the metopes of the Parthenon); depicting a visual metaphor, e.g. dramatizing man’s openness to existence by depicting a nude figure with open arms. Dramatization in visual art often shows something that implies action — e.g., a painting can dramatize the idea of justice by depicting a figure in an act of justice (punishing a villain or embracing a hero).
Drawing The art form that creates a subject by means of marking lines on a surface, such as graphite pencil on paper. Drawing is the basis for painting.
Écorché A depiction of the human figure without its skin. The écorché is often used in art instruction to teach human anatomy.
Effigy A sculpture or model used for some purpose other than aesthetic contemplation. In the ancient world, effigies were believed to provide a place for the dead to inhabit and were installed in tombs. In modern culture, effigies of “a Man” are burned during “Burning Man” events in the Nevada desert.
Embody To represent or imply an abstract idea using a concrete object or feature. E.g. Myron’s Discus Thrower (Discobolus) embodies an ideal of human excellence.
Encaustic Descriptive of paint that has wax as its binder for the pigments. Encaustic painting typically uses pigmented wax that is heated before it is applied to a surface.
Entablature In ancient architecture, the layered, elevated frame that conjoins the vertical columns with the roof. The entablature in (Doric) temples was usually decorated with a series of alternating metopes and triglyphs.
Essentialize To stress what is essential about something — to isolate or emphasize a feature of something upon which other features depend or with which other features are related. E.g., in a portrait, emphasizing an intelligent facial expression and omitting non-essential details such as pores of the skin.
Field of vision / visual field All that an individual perceives from a fixed viewpoint. The term characterizes what is perceived from a given viewpoint as being like an area or realm.
Firsthand Pertains to direct observation of something. E.g., study is firsthand when it is from direct cognition of the subject rather than derived from someone else’s rendering of or report about the subject. Distinguished from secondhanded — e.g., borrowed from convention or following authority.
Foreshortening, foreshortened In art, the visual effect that results when an object is viewed at an angle and appears as though it is shorter, or compressed, than when it is viewed in profile. E.g., a person’s arm pointed toward a viewer appears as though it is compressed, since the length of the arm (relative to the height of the figure) is not visible from that viewpoint.
Formulaic Following a formula or convention. Formulaic art follows an established pattern or set of guidelines over the evidence of observation. E.g., in ancient Egyptian art, the formula for the figure included legs viewed in profile and the chest viewed from the front.
Freestanding In sculpture, standing independent of, or unattached to, a supporting structure. Michelangelo’s David is a freestanding sculpture, while the portraits of Mount Rushmore are not freestanding.
Fresco Plural: frescoes. Italian word meaning “fresh.” The method of painting by applying water-based paint to a moist, plaster surface. Also, a painting made by this method. Michelangelo’s paintings on the Sistine Ceiling are frescoes.
Frieze A long, continuous band or series of panels of painted or relief images. E.g., The West Frieze of the Parthenon includes the depiction of a procession of cavalrymen with their horses. (Fig. 6-85)
Gargoyle In architecture, a drainage spout shaped to resemble a creature. Usually a grotesque that serves as a drainage spout.
Grid system As it was used in ancient Egyptian art, a method for replicating an image whereby a prototype is marked with a grid of lines, then the parts of the image are redrawn on another grid. By this method, an image can be copied, enlarged or reduced in size.
Grotesque In sculpture, a figure of a misshapen person, creature or monster. Grotesques in antiquity were usually small sculptures intended to ward off misfortune. Large grotesques set on buildings are often mistakenly called “gargoyles.” A grotesque can be a gargoyle if it also serves as a drainage spout.
Ground plane In two-dimensional art, the implied three-dimensional surface of the ground on which figures stand. The depiction of a receding plane on which figures are positioned. The implied horizontal surface that is perpendicular to the picture plane. (The picture plane is the plane that is vertical relative to the viewer.) The depiction of a ground plane is often achieved by depicting distant figures above foreground figures. The ground plane can be more overtly described with contour lines that follow the surface of the ground. E.g. the cross-contour lines of a checkered tile floor can show the plane of the floor more vividly than can the mere outline of the floor that follows where the floor meets the walls.
Groundline A line that represents the ground on which figures stand. A single groundline was common in ancient painting and often appeared at the bottom of registers in which figures were set in rows.
Herm Plural: hermae. A vertical slab or pillar with a sculpted head at its top. In antiquity, hermae were used to mark roads, boundaries and buildings to ward off misfortune. Ancient hermae often included a phallus on the front of the slab to denote the influence of the god Hermes, a phallic god of good fortune.
Hero Someone who has extraordinary ability to overcome obstacles to achieve a high goal. The heroic in art emphasizes man’s potential for greatness. In ancient myth, heroes often were offspring of the gods, or aided by the gods.
Heroic scale In sculpture, larger than life-size but smaller than colossal scale.
Hierarchical proportion A primitive system of proportion in which the most important figures are largest; the least important, smallest.
Hieratic Pertaining to priests or a priesthood. Hieratic art is art made for a priesthood or under the authority of a priesthood. In Egyptology, “hieratic” refers to a type of Egyptian writing that is simpler than hieroglyphics.
Hippodrome In ancient Greek architecture, a racetrack for chariot racing. The track was oblong with one end curved and the other end rectangular.
Iconoclasm The destruction of images or artwork.
Idol An image, often a figure, that stands for a god or spirit. Idolatry is the worship of idols.
Illusionistic painting Painting that aims to create the illusion that a physical object is on the painted surface. In antiquity, illusionistic painting was primarily used to depict an architectural element on a wall in order to give the impression that the actual element — be it a window, column, or molding — was present on the wall. Illusionistic painting of architectural elements is also called “skenographia.” From the Renaissance on, trompe-l’oeil paintings of still life objects were created for the same purpose — to give the impression that an actual object is resting on, or is attached to the canvas.
Incise To cut a line or series of lines into a surface with a sharp tool.
Intaglio From the Italian word meaning “to cut.” A kind of relief in which the image is carved into a surface — e.g., ancient cylinder seals are decorated with intaglio images.
Kore Plural: korai. Greek for “maiden.” Conventional name for an Archaic Greek statue of a draped female youth.
Kouros Plural: kouroi. Greek for “male youth.” Conventional name for an Archaic Greek statue of a nude male youth.
Lamassu Plural: lamassu. A guardian spirit revered in ancient Mesopotamian cultures. Lamassu were depicted in Assyrian art with human and animal features that reflected earlier depictions of mythical creatures.
Landscape In two-dimensional art, a depiction of the features of an area of land and sky. Although landscape is usually of a natural setting, it can include man-made features, e.g. Rembrandt’s landscape etchings often include houses and windmills.
Lekythos In ancient ceramics, a tall, narrow oil flask with one handle attached at the neck, often used for funerary rites.
Lifecast / life mask A positive form cast / shaped from a mold that was made directly from a living person’s face.
Line work A line or series of lines drawn on a surface. The term focuses on the quality or character of the line(s) apart from subject or theme — e.g., “The line work in the etching is bold and confident.”
Local color The color of an object as it appears in natural, ambient light without the effects of shadow or nearby colors. An example of local color is the red of a Cardinal’s feathers. If a blue light is shone onto the bird, its red feathers would appear to be black. Its local color is red, not black.
Lyrical Descriptive of a work of visual art that has an even repetition of elements with variation, similar to the beats of poetry. E.g. the curved lines in a painting might be repeated yet show variations of size and direction, such as the women' locks of hair in the Minoan fresco Ladies in Blue. (Fig. 5-7) Lyrical features in visual art are often evocative of vitality, joy or gaiety.
Medium The material in which an artwork is made, e.g. graphite on paper, cast bronze, watercolor.
Metaphysical value-judgment A person's assessment of what is possible and most important in life. An assessment that reflects a basic view of human nature and existence. Examples of metaphysical value-judgements are: “It’s natural for humans to thrive," or "Humans are by nature doomed;” “Existence is sensible," or "The world is dangerous.”
Metaphysics The branch of philosophy that studies existence as such. This branch answers questions about man’s essential nature and his relationship to existence: e.g. “Is existence rigged against man?” or “Can man achieve happiness?” The term “metaphysical” pertains to all of existence and is not limited to particular things or events.
Metope In ancient architecture, a tablet or block set between the triglyphs as part of a frieze on a (Doric) entablature. The term “metope” is Greek for “an opening between” and refers to an earlier feature of Greek architecture in which a series of spaces were left between the ends of the roof beams.
Mosaic A two-dimensional art in which a picture or pattern is made with small, colored pieces of a hard material like stone, glass, or shell, arranged together in mortar. In antiquity, mosaics were used to decorate floors, walls, and ceilings. Greco-Roman mosaics often copied paintings.
Motif A recurring image or design that often stands for an idea.
Narrative art Art that is meant to tell a fictional or historical story. Narrative art depicts scenes and events that are themselves elements of a wider account — e.g. Trajan’s Column depicts scenes from the emperor’s campaigns in the Dacian Wars.
Naturalism In visual art, the re-creation of something with little or no stylization or modification — in other words, a re-creation of what is without dramatization of what could be. Naturalistic art indiscriminately records a subject as though the artist does not exercise selection or value judgment. Naturalistic art is distinguished from Romantic art which expresses the artist’s value choices. Naturalism is often confused with the more general category of realism in art. The term “naturalistic” is also often used to describe art that depicts the natural as distinct from the man-made — art that is based on observation of the natural world, or nature.
Oblique view An oblique view is any viewing angle other than one that is either perpendicular or parallel to the object. E.g. a 3/4 view of the head is at an oblique angle, while a perpendicular view would give either the “front” or the “back” view. A “parallel” view that lines up with the axis of the head would give a “bird’s-eye” view from above.
Neoplatonism The philosophy taught by Plotinus (c. 204/5 - 270 A.D.). Ideas that follow the teachings of Plotinus. Neoplatonism holds that existence emanates from a godhead or supreme “One.”
Outline In two-dimensional art, the outermost contour line. The line that bounds or limits an object, distinguishing the object from its background or surroundings.
Painterly Descriptive of a painting or its brushwork in which the brushstrokes are visible and color values reflect brushwork and not drawing. A painterly style of brushwork emphasizes color values over outline and contour line. E.g. the painting of a duck on an Egyptian pavement tile from the 18th Dynasty (Fig. 4-55) has a painterly style of brushwork: Plants are described with quick “painterly” strokes of the brush. By contrast, the plants and birds in the Egyptian Geese of Meidum panel from the 4th Dynasty (Fig. 4-44) are rendered in crisp outline and are not painterly in style.
Painting The art form that re-creates a subject by means of applying color values to a surface, such as oil paint on canvas.
Pantheon A group of gods. A temple that is dedicated to a number of gods.
Pediment In architecture, the triangular area below the gable end of a pitched roof. In ancient architecture, the pediment was located above the entablature and was often decorated with relief.
Personification In visual art, use of the human figure to stand for something else. E.g., Giambologna’s seated female nude personifies the art of architecture; Bartholdi’s colossus personifies liberty. (Fig. 1-1) Personification is often used in allegorical art.
Perspective / visual perspective In two-dimensional art, the method of depicting three-dimensional objects in a spatial field. Perspective is used to re-create the volume of an object, the depth of a space, the distance between objects, and the direction and proximity of a light source relative to the objects that it illuminates. A subject is “in perspective” when it is rendered in accordance with how it would necessarily appear from a given, fixed point of view. Techniques include the use of linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. Linear perspective shows the diminution of elements on the picture plane to a vanishing point at the viewer’s horizon line. Single-point perspective is linear perspective in which there is one vanishing point. Atmospheric perspective shows the gradual desaturation of color values for distant objects. Principles of perspective in art are based on the nature of human vision and the laws of optics.
Pharaonic Pertaining to an Egyptian god-king.
Pictograph (also pictogram) A picture, or pictorial symbol, that stands for an idea. E.g., before the invention of cuneiform, a drawing of a bird stood for the concept “bird” in Mesopotamian pictographs. Over time, the drawing of the bird was modified until it became a set of wedge-shaped lines that meant “bird” in cuneiform writing.
Pigment That which gives something its local color, e.g. a powdered mineral in paint. The term “pigment” can be used as a synonym for “color.”
Plane A flat surface. In art, the surfaces of objects are understood as being comprised of a series of planes. This understanding helps the artist re-create the structure of three-dimensional objects, and helps the viewer to see that structure.
Pointing In sculpture, a method of duplicating an object by mechanically transferring measurements from fixed points on the original object to a material, like a block of stone. By this method, an artist can replicate an original sculpture, or make a copy that is larger or smaller than the original sculpture.
Pose The positions of the parts of the figure considered as a whole. The entire configuration of the figure. It is the figure’s overall posture of standing, sitting, reclining, or moving.
Presocratic Descriptive of a philosophy or philosopher who predates the time of Socrates, who lived c. 469-399 B.C. The Presocratics were the first philosophers, beginning with Thales of Miletus (c. 625 - 546 B.C.). These thinkers were primarily concerned with questions of metaphysics and they tried to understand existence by using rational inquiry, not by invoking gods — e.g. Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 580-500 B.C.) held that natural forces, not gods, produced the basic elements of the universe.
Profile In art, profile refers to what is visible when a figure is viewed from the side. E.g., the profile of the head shows the outline of the forehead, nose, mouth and chin viewed from the side. The profile is distinguished from other views such as the front, back, and the foreshortened or oblique view.
Propaganda art Art intended to promote a political idea and impact the viewer’s political views. Propaganda art is often didactic — meant to instruct the viewer about the politics that the artist is promoting. Examples of modern age propaganda art are the official arts of Soviet Russia, Communist China, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy.
Proportion The relationship in size of a part to a whole. Proportion in art is usually understood as a ratio that compares a length or volume of a part to a whole, or of a part to other parts. E.g., the adult human figure is about 7.5 heads high. The length of the hand is about 0.75 that of the head.
Rational Pertaining to the exercise of reason as the only method for gaining knowledge. Descriptive of a method of acquiring knowledge that is based on perceptual observation and logical consistency, as distinct from faith or feeling. E.g., astronomy is a rational science, while astrology is not.
Realism / realistic Generally descriptive of art that accurately depicts a subject according to the evidence of perceptual observation. Realistic art can be stylized to any degree within the limits of intelligibility and natural appearance. Realistic art is distinguished from Abstract art. Both Naturalist and Romanticist art can be realistic. E.g., Gustave Courbet’s Naturalist painting The Stone Breakers and John William Waterhouse’s Romanticist painting Hylas and the Nymphs are both realistic in approach, while Edvard Munch's abstract work The Scream is not realistic. The term “realism” in art is conventionally treated as a synonym for the term “representational.” In art history, the name “Realist” is misapplied to the trend of Naturalism in 19th century European art. Realism is also sometimes mistakenly termed “Illusionism.”
Rectilinear Characterized by or following a straight line or series of straight, perpendicular lines.
Red-figure painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method of painting that produced light-colored figures surrounded by a black background. The figures were rendered using painted contour lines. This technique allowed freer rendering and greater sensitivity of line work compared to the method of black-figure painting.
Register In ancient art, a horizontal band, or tier, often framed above and below by straight lines or bars. Ancient registers usually contain figures set in a row, with the bottom line serving as a groundline — e.g., the procession of figures on the Warka Vase. (Fig. 3-34)
Relief Sculptural form that is part of a flat surface. High-relief (alto-relief) projects out from the surface more than low-relief (bas-relief). Sunken relief is hollowed into the surface (also called intaglio).
Representational Conventional term that refers to realistic art. E.g., a painting of a bowl of apples is said to be representational when it is based on the artist’s direct observation of a bowl of apples. But art uses subjects based on observation to embody abstract ideas — art “represents” an abstraction, not the particular that it depicts. E.g., while a painting of a bowl of apples re-creates a bowl of apples, it does not represent a bowl of apples, rather it represents (for instance) an idea of prosperity. The term as it is often used is synonymous with the term “realistic.”
Sarcophagus Plural: sarcophagi. An ancient coffin, usually carved in stone and decorated in relief.
Sculpture The art form that re-creates a subject by means of three-dimensional form shaped in a solid material, such as stone carved in the shape of a human figure.
Sculpture in the round Freestanding sculpture in which all surfaces are viewable — it can be viewed from all around it. E.g. Myron’s Discus Thrower is sculpture in the round
Sense of life The emotional sum that an artwork evokes or dramatizes about life and existence, e.g. "Life is a joy" or “Life is a burden;” “The world is inviting” or “The world is frightening.” A person’s sense of life is his or her implicit metaphysical outlook experienced in the form of an emotion. Sense of life is usually held subconsciously and is implied in a work of art. For example, the sense of life conveyed in Luca Della Robbias’ relief panels of children playing music, expresses the view that joy is natural in life. (Fig. 9-10)
Skenographia Greek meaning “scene painting.” In Roman art, painting that depicts architectural features for the purpose of perspective illusion — to suggest that three-dimensional objects exist on the surface that is painted. Often a mural that aims to give a wall the appearance of having an physical door, window, or molding, when none is there. Similar to Renaissance trompe-l’oeil paintings that were meant to trick the viewer into thinking that an actual physical object is on the canvas.
Skepticism The view that knowledge is not possible. Skepticism grew out of the Platonist method of questioning common knowledge or received opinion. The philosophy of skepticism was developed by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 320 - 230 B.C.) and taught by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160 - 210 A.D.)
Static figure A depiction of the figure that implies that the figure is not capable of action or movement. A figure that does not show man’s potential for action.
Stele (Plural: stelae. (Also stela) An upright commemorative or funerary slab, often inscribed or decorated with carved relief.
Still life In two-dimensional art, the depiction of inanimate objects, usually objects that are in an arrangement. Still life can include plants and animals. By the kinds of items that the artist selects, still life can suggest a certain kind of life, e.g. a life of intellectual pursuits can be suggested by a book, a magnifying glass, and notepad; a life of affluence can be suggested by an arrangement of food or jewelry.
Stoicism A Hellenistic philosophy that claimed that existence is determined therefore man has no free will. The Stoics taught that man should accept his circumstances, give up pursuing high values, withdraw from the world and find an inner state of virtue. Stoicism originated with the teachings of the Greek Zeno of Citium (c. 344 - 262 B.C.) and was developed in the Roman Empire period in the 1st - 2nd centuries A.D.
Stucco In sculpture, a water-based medium similar to plaster. Stucco is applied wet and hardens when it dries. Stucco is used primarily for decorative reliefs and moldings. In painting, stucco is used as a ground for paint.
Subject The particular thing that an artwork depicts, such as a person, plant, animal, or place. Subject is distinguished from theme (a particular idea) and metaphysics (a wider outlook on life and existence).
Subjective art (Also non-objective art) Art with meaning that is not objective, or cannot be known by reason. Subjective art can have features that are based on observation of reality, but taken as a whole, the artwork does not clearly stand for something understood by reason. The meaning of subjective art cannot be verified by means of observation and logic. Typically, the meaning of subjective art is believed to reflect the artist or viewer’s feelings or experience. An example of subjective art is early 20th century Dada art.
Style / stylization The way that an artist re-creates a subject. How the artist emphasizes or de-emphasizes something in their artwork. E.g., an artist might render a figure in bold streaks of dark paint to emphasize the figure’s strength and action, while another artist might use fine, even contour lines to emphasize the figure’s gentleness. The features of an artwork produced by a process of stylization.
Symbolism / symbolic art Art that uses an object or motif to directly stand for an idea. Symbolism in art usually depends upon the viewer knowing in advance what idea a symbol stands for, like an image of a falcon standing for the god Horus according to ancient Egyptian religion. Although a symbol can stand for an idea it does not dramatize an idea. A symbol is distinguished from allegory. In art history, the Symbolist movement refers to 19th century artists who used symbols in their artwork — e.g. Paul Gauguin’s Where Do we Come From? Where Are We? Where Are We Going? features religious symbols.
Tempera (Also egg tempera) A paint medium that is water-soluble and made with a binder, usually egg yoke.
Theme A particular idea that a work of art expresses, such as "The king is powerful," "The tall ship is a beacon of hope," or "Justice is possible.” The theme is usually not as abstract as the metaphysics that the artwork embodies.
Tone In two-dimensional art, some degree of color value, brightness or darkness of an object.
Tonal gradation (Also value gradation) A variation in the brightness or hue of a subject. Tonal gradation can re-create variations in local color, imply surface shape, and indicate the direction and proximity of a light source. Tonal gradation is created in two-dimensional art by means of shading, e.g., a gradual change from dark to light across the surface of an egg can suggest the shape of the egg.
Torso A depiction of the trunk of the body without the head and limbs. Many sculptural torsos from the past were once full-figure statues that lost their extremities — e.g., the Belvedere Torso. (Fig. 7-22) The torso is a type of sculpture that emulates torso fragments from the past. The torso can dramatize vitality.
Triglyph In ancient architecture, a tablet or block set between metopes as part of a frieze on a (Doric) entablature. The term “triglyph” means “three carved channels,” referring to the triglyph’s characteristic trio of vertical bars or channels. Historians think that the triglyphs are a decorative imitation of the ends of the wooden beams that used to support temple roofs.
Undercut In sculpture, a cavity created by a prominence, usually the underside of a prominence. E.g. the underside of a person’s chin, or the underside of a fold of drapery.
Underdrawing A preliminary drawing over which a drawing or painting is made.
Universal Pertaining or applicable to all members of a kind. E.g., a rational faculty is universal to man (to all men, women and children), while blonde hair is not.
Visual art Art in which the primary mode of expression is visual. E.g., painting is a visual art; music is not.
Votive An object that is or that stands for a gift to a god or spirit. In antiquity (and likely in prehistory), votives were believed to entreat gods to favor the giver.
Western civilization Pertaining to societies that developed from the intellectual achievements of the ancient Greeks, such as those that ignited the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution.
White-ground painting In ancient Greek vase painting, a method in which figures are drawn on a white background using painted-on black outline and couture line and then filled in with color. The white background surrounding the figure often suggested an open, lit space
Banner:: Detail of Garden Room fresco, Villa of Livia, Prima Porta, Italy. Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome. Image credit: Miguel Hermoso Cuesta. (CC BY-SA 3.0)
